Where Can I Buy Repair Porcelin For Chiped Tooth Bridge

Ceramic cloth

Porcelain
Chinese	瓷
Transcriptions Standard mandarin Hanyu Pinyin cí IPA [tsʰɨ̌] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization chìh Jyutping ci4 Southern Min Tâi-lô hûi

Porcelain () is a ceramic textile made by heating substances, generally including materials such as kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures betwixt 1,200 and 1,400 °C (ii,200 and 2,600 °F). The strength, and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these loftier temperatures. Though definitions vary, porcelain can be divided into three main categories: hard-paste, soft-paste and bone mainland china. The category that an object belongs to depends on the limerick of the paste used to make the torso of the porcelain object and the firing weather condition.

Porcelain slowly evolved in China and was finally achieved (depending on the definition used) at some bespeak almost ii,000 to ane,200 years ago, then slowly spread to other Due east Asian countries, then to Europe and eventually to the residue of the earth. Its manufacturing process is more demanding than that for earthenware and stoneware, the two other primary types of pottery, and it has commonly been regarded as the about prestigious type of pottery for its delicacy, forcefulness, and its white colour. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a huge range of decorative treatments in tableware, vessels and figurines. It too has many uses in technology and industry.

The European name, porcelain in English, comes from the old Italian porcellana (cowrie crush) because of its resemblance to the surface of the vanquish.^[one] Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine people's republic of china in some English-speaking countries, every bit information technology was first seen in imports from Mainland china.^[two] Properties associated with porcelain include low permeability and elasticity; considerable strength, hardness, whiteness, translucency and resonance; and a high resistance to corrosive chemicals and thermal daze.

Flower centrepiece, 18th century, Spain

Porcelain has been described every bit being "completely vitrified, hard, impermeable (even before glazing), white or artificially coloured, translucent (except when of considerable thickness), and resonant".^[3] However, the term "porcelain" lacks a universal definition and has "been practical in an unsystematic way to substances of diverse kinds which have simply certain surface-qualities in mutual".^[4]

Traditionally, East asia only classifies pottery into low-fired wares (earthenware) and high-fired wares (often translated equally porcelain), the latter also including what Europeans call stoneware, which is high-fired merely not generally white or translucent. Terms such equally "proto-porcelain", "porcellaneous" or "near-porcelain" may be used in cases where the ceramic trunk approaches whiteness and translucency.^[5]

Types [edit]

Chinese Imperial Dish with Flowering Prunus, Famille Rose overglaze enamel, between 1723 and 1735

Demonstration of the translucent quality of porcelain

Hard paste [edit]

Hard-paste porcelain was invented in China, and it was also used in Japanese porcelain, and most of the finest quality porcelain wares are in this material. The earliest European porcelains were produced at the Meissen factory in the early 18th century; they were formed from a paste composed of kaolin and alabaster and fired at temperatures upwardly to 1,400 °C (two,552 °F) in a woods-fired kiln, producing a porcelain of dandy hardness, translucency, and strength.^[6] Later, the limerick of the Meissen hard paste was changed and the alabaster was replaced by feldspar and quartz, allowing the pieces to be fired at lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and quartz (or other forms of silica) go on to constitute the basic ingredients for virtually continental European hard-paste porcelains.

Soft paste [edit]

Soft-paste porcelains date dorsum from early attempts by European potters to replicate Chinese porcelain past using mixtures of clay and frit. Soapstone and lime are known to have been included in these compositions. These wares were not yet actual porcelain wares as they were neither hard nor vitrified by firing kaolin clay at high temperatures. As these early on formulations suffered from high pyroplastic deformation, or slumping in the kiln at loftier temperatures, they were uneconomic to produce and of depression quality.

Formulations were later developed based on kaolin with quartz, feldspars, nepheline syenite or other feldspathic rocks. These are technically superior, and continue to be produced. Soft-paste porcelains are fired at lower temperatures than hard-paste porcelain, therefore these wares are generally less hard than hard-paste porcelains.^{[7] [8]}

Bone prc [edit]

Although originally developed in England in 1748^[9] to compete with imported porcelain, bone china is now made worldwide, including China. The English had read the letters of Jesuit missionary François Xavier d'Entrecolles, which described Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets in detail.^[x] One writer has speculated that a misunderstanding of the text could possibly have been responsible for the first attempts to use bone-ash as an ingredient of English language porcelain,^[ten] although this is not supported by modern researchers and historians.^{[eleven] [12] [thirteen] [14] [fifteen]}

Traditionally, English bone mainland china was fabricated from two parts of bone ash, 1 role of kaolin and one part china stone, although the latter has largely been replaced by feldspars from non-U.k. sources.^[16] Merely for example Imperial Crown Derby still uses 50% os ash in the 21st century.

Materials [edit]

Kaolin is the main cloth from which porcelain is fabricated, fifty-fifty though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both unfired and fired materials. A more mutual terminology for the unfired fabric is "body"; for example, when ownership materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor.

The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the clay mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials tin include feldspar, brawl clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster.

The clays used are often described as being long or curt, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive (sticky) and have high plasticity; brusque clays are less cohesive and have lower plasticity. In soil mechanics, plasticity is determined by measuring the increment in content of water required to change a dirt from a solid state bordering on the plastic, to a plastic land adjoining on the liquid, though the term is also used less formally to depict the ease with which a clay may be worked.

Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays. They wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of h2o can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of water content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow and consequently must be advisedly controlled.

Production [edit]

Forming [edit]

Porcelain tin be made using all the shaping techniques for pottery. It was originally typically made on the potter's wheel, though moulds were also used from early on. Slipcasting has been the most mutual commercial method in contempo times.

Glazing [edit]

Biscuit porcelain is unglazed porcelain treated as a finished production, mostly for figures and sculpture. Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do non need glazing to render them impermeable to liquids and for the most part are glazed for decorative purposes and to make them resistant to clay and staining. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the celadon wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain.

Decoration [edit]

Porcelain often receives underglaze decoration using pigments that include cobalt oxide and copper, or overglaze enamels, allowing a wider range of colours. Like many earlier wares, modernistic porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around ane,000 °C (1,830 °F), coated with glaze and and so sent for a second glaze-firing at a temperature of about 1,300 °C (ii,370 °F) or greater. Another early method is "one time-fired", where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the 2 fired together in a single performance.

Firing [edit]

In this procedure, "light-green" (unfired) ceramic wares are heated to high temperatures in a kiln to permanently set their shapes, vitrify the torso and the glaze. Porcelain is fired at a college temperature than earthenware so that the body can vitrify and get not-porous. Many types of porcelain in the past have been fired twice or even 3 times, to permit decoration using less robust pigments in overglaze enamel.

History [edit]

Chinese porcelain [edit]

Porcelain was invented in China over a centuries-long development period beginning with "proto-porcelain" wares dating from the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 B.C.Eastward). By the time of the Eastern Han dynasty (CE 25–220) these early on glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain, which Chinese defined equally high-fired ware.^{[17] [18]} By the belatedly Sui dynasty (581–618 CE) and early Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), the at present-standard requirements of whiteness and translucency had been accomplished,^[19] in types such equally Ding ware. The wares were already exported to the Islamic world, where they were highly prized.^{[18] [20]}

Eventually, porcelain and the expertise required to create it began to spread into other areas of East Asia. During the Song dynasty (960–1279 Ad), artistry and production had reached new heights. The manufacture of porcelain became highly organised, and the dragon kilns excavated from this menstruation could burn down every bit many as 25,000 pieces at a time,^[21] and over 100,000 by the finish of the menstruum.^[22] While Xing ware is regarded as amongst the greatest of the Tang dynasty porcelain, Ding ware became the premier porcelain of the Song dynasty.^[23] By the Ming dynasty, production of the finest wares for the court was concentrated in a single city, and Jingdezhen porcelain, originally endemic by the majestic government, remains the centre of Chinese porcelain production.

By the time of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), porcelain wares were existence exported to Asia and Europe. Some of the nearly well-known Chinese porcelain fine art styles arrived in Europe during this era, such as the coveted "blue-and-white" wares.^[24] The Ming dynasty controlled much of the porcelain trade, which was expanded to Asia, Africa and Europe via the Silk Road. In 1517, Portuguese merchants began direct trade by sea with the Ming dynasty, and in 1598, Dutch merchants followed.^[20]

Some porcelains were more highly valued than others in purple China. The almost valued types tin can exist identified by their association with the court, either equally tribute offerings, or as products of kilns nether majestic supervision.^[25] Since the Yuan dynasty, the largest and all-time centre of production has made Jingdezhen porcelain. During the Ming dynasty, Jingdezhen porcelain become a source of regal pride. The Yongle emperor erected a white porcelain brick-faced pagoda at Nanjing, and an exceptionally smoothly glazed type of white porcelain is peculiar to his reign. Jingdezhen porcelain's fame came to a peak during the Qing dynasty.

Japanese porcelain [edit]

Although the Japanese elite were keen importers of Chinese porcelain from early on on, they were not able to brand their own until the arrival of Korean potters that were taken captive during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). They brought an improved type of kiln, and 1 of them spotted a source of porcelain dirt near Arita, and earlier long several kilns had started in the region. At start their wares were like to the cheaper and cruder Chinese porcelains with underglaze blue ornamentation that were already widely sold in Nihon; this style was to go along for cheaper everyday wares until the 20th century.^[26]

Exports to Europe began around 1660, through the Chinese and the Dutch Due east Bharat Company, the only Europeans immune a trading presence. Chinese exports had been seriously disrupted by civil wars as the Ming dynasty fell autonomously, and the Japanese exports increased rapidly to fill up the gap. At offset the wares used European shapes and generally Chinese decoration, equally the Chinese had done, only gradually original Japanese styles developed.

Nabeshima ware was produced in kilns owned by the families of feudal lords, and were decorated in the Japanese tradition, much of it related to textile pattern. This was not initially exported, but used for gifts to other aristocratic families. Imari ware and Kakiemon are broad terms for styles of consign porcelain with overglaze "enamelled" decoration begun in the early menstruation, both with many sub-types.^[27]

A slap-up range of styles and manufacturing centres were in employ by the get-go of the 19th century, and as Japan opened to merchandise in the second half, exports expanded hugely and quality generally declined. Much traditional porcelain continues to replicate older methods of production and styles, and in that location are several modern industrial manufacturers.^[28] By the early on 1900s, Filipino porcelain artisans working in Japanese porcelain centres for much of their lives, later on introduced the craft into the native population in the Philippines,^[29] although oral literature from Cebu in the central Philippines have noted that porcelain were already being produced by the natives locally during the fourth dimension of Cebu's early rulers, prior to the arrival of colonizers in the 16th century.^[30]

European porcelain [edit]

These exported Chinese porcelains were held in such corking esteem in Europe that in English communist china became a commonly–used synonym for the Italian-derived porcelain. The showtime mention of porcelain in Europe is in Il Milione by Marco Polo in the 13th century.^[31] Apart from copying Chinese porcelain in faience (tin glazed earthenware), the soft-paste Medici porcelain in 16th-century Florence was the first real European attempt to reproduce it, with petty success.

Early in the 16th century, Portuguese traders returned home with samples of kaolin, which they discovered in China to be essential in the production of porcelain wares. Even so, the Chinese techniques and limerick used to industry porcelain were not yet fully understood.^[21] Countless experiments to produce porcelain had unpredictable results and met with failure.^[21] In the German state of Saxony, the search ended in 1708 when Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus produced a hard, white, translucent type of porcelain specimen with a combination of ingredients, including kaolin and alabaster, mined from a Saxon mine in Colditz.^{[32] [6]} It was a closely guarded trade secret of the Saxon enterprise.^{[six] [33]}

In 1712, many of the elaborate Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets were revealed throughout Europe by the French Jesuit male parent Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles and soon published in the Lettres édifiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jésuites.^[34] The secrets, which d'Entrecolles read nearly and witnessed in China, were at present known and began seeing use in Europe.^[34]

Meissen [edit]

Von Tschirnhaus along with Johann Friedrich Böttger were employed by Augustus Ii, Rex of Poland and Elector of Saxony, who sponsored their work in Dresden and in the town of Meissen. Tschirnhaus had a wide knowledge of science and had been involved in the European quest to perfect porcelain manufacture when, in 1705, Böttger was appointed to assistance him in this task. Böttger had originally been trained equally a chemist; subsequently he turned to alchemical enquiry, he claimed to take known the secret of transmuting dross into golden, which attracted the attending of Augustus. Imprisoned past Augustus equally an incentive to hasten his research, Böttger was obliged to piece of work with other alchemists in the futile search for transmutation and was eventually assigned to assistance Tschirnhaus.^[32] One of the offset results of the collaboration between the two was the development of a red stoneware that resembled that of Yixing.

A workshop note records that the starting time specimen of hard, white and vitrified European porcelain was produced in 1708. At the time, the enquiry was still being supervised past Tschirnhaus; however, he died in Oct of that year. Information technology was left to Böttger to study to Augustus in March 1709 that he could brand porcelain. For this reason, credit for the European discovery of porcelain is traditionally ascribed to him rather than Tschirnhaus.^[35]

The Meissen factory was established in 1710 after the development of a kiln and a glaze suitable for apply with Böttger's porcelain, which required firing at temperatures of upwards to i,400 °C (two,552 °F) to accomplish translucence. Meissen porcelain was once-fired, or green-fired. It was noted for its bang-up resistance to thermal shock; a company to the factory in Böttger'south time reported having seen a white-hot teapot existence removed from the kiln and dropped into common cold h2o without harm. Although widely disbelieved this has been replicated in modern times.^[36]

Soft paste porcelain [edit]

The pastes produced by combining clay and powdered glass (frit) were called Frittenporzellan in Germany and frita in Spain. In France they were known as pâte tendre and in England as "soft-paste".^[37] They appear to have been given this proper noun because they do not easily retain their shape in the moisture land, or because they tend to slump in the kiln under high temperature, or because the trunk and the glaze can be easily scratched.

France

Experiments at Rouen produced the earliest soft-paste in France, but the first important French soft-paste porcelain was made at the Saint-Cloud factory earlier 1702. Soft-paste factories were established with the Chantilly manufactory in 1730 and at Mennecy in 1750. The Vincennes porcelain factory was established in 1740, moving to larger bounds at Sèvres^[38] in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and freer of imperfections than any of its French rivals, which put Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain in the leading position in France and throughout the whole of Europe in the second one-half of the 18th century.^[39]

Italian republic

Doccia porcelain of Florence was founded in 1735 and remains in product, dissimilar Capodimonte porcelain which was moved from Naples to Madrid past its imperial possessor, later on producing from 1743 to 1759. After a gap of 15 years Naples porcelain was produced from 1771 to 1806, specializing in Neoclassical styles. All these were very successful, with large outputs of high-quality wares. In and around Venice, Francesco Vezzi was producing hard-paste from around 1720 to 1735; survivals of Vezzi porcelain are very rare, just less so than from the Hewelke manufactory, which only lasted from 1758 to 1763. The soft-paste Cozzi factory fared amend, lasting from 1764 to 1812. The Le Nove manufactory produced from nigh 1752 to 1773, then was revived from 1781 to 1802.^[40]

England

The starting time soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the Royal Guild in 1742 and is believed to have been based on the Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas Frye took out a patent on a porcelain containing bone ash. This was the outset bone communist china, later on perfected by Josiah Spode. William Cookworthy discovered deposits of kaolin in Cornwall, and his factory at Plymouth, established in 1768, used kaolin and red china stone to make hard-paste porcelain with a torso limerick similar to that of the Chinese porcelains of the early on 18th century. Only the great success of English ceramics in the 18th century was based on soft-paste porcelain, and refined earthenwares such as creamware, which could compete with porcelain, and had devastated the faience industries of France and other continental countries by the end of the century. Nearly English porcelain from the belatedly 18th century to the present is bone china.

In the twenty-v years after Briand'due south demonstration, a number of factories were founded in England to make soft-paste tableware and figures:

• Chelsea (1743)^{[41] [42]}
• Bow (1745)^{[43] [44] [45]}
• St James's (1748)^{[45] [46]}
• Bristol porcelain (1748)
• Longton Hall (1750)^[47]
• Regal Crown Derby (1750 or 1757)^{[48] [49]}
• Purple Worcester (1751)
• Lowestoft porcelain (1757)^[fifty]
• Wedgwood (1759)
• Spode (1767)

Russian porcelain [edit]

In 1744, the Elizabeth of Russian federation signed an agreement to institute the first porcelain mill; previously it had to be imported. The technology of making "white aureate" was carefully hidden by its creators. Peter the Not bad had tried to reveal the "big porcelain hugger-mugger", and sent an amanuensis to the Meissen factory, and finally hired a porcelain primary from away.^[51] This relied on the research of the Russian scientist Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov. His development of porcelain manufacturing technology was not based on secrets learned through 3rd parties, merely was the result of painstaking work and careful analysis. Thanks to this, by 1760, Imperial Porcelain Manufacturing plant, Saint Petersburg became a major European factories producing tableware, and later porcelain figurines.^[52]

Eventually other factories opened: Gardner porcelain, Dulyovo (1832), Kuznetsovsky porcelain, Popovsky porcelain, and Gzhel.

Other uses [edit]

Electric insulating material [edit]

Porcelain insulator for medium-loftier voltage

Porcelain and other ceramic materials accept many applications in engineering, especially ceramic engineering. Porcelain is an excellent insulator for use with high voltages, especially in outdoor applications (run into Insulator (electricity)#Textile). Examples include: terminals for high-voltage cables, bushings of power transformers, and insulation of loftier-frequency antennas.

Building material [edit]

Porcelain tin be used every bit a building material, usually in the form of tiles or large rectangular panels. Modern porcelain tiles are generally produced by a number of recognised international standards and definitions.^{[53] [54]} Manufacturers are establish across the earth^[55] with Italian republic being the global leader, producing over 380 meg square metres in 2006.^[56] Historic examples of rooms decorated entirely in porcelain tiles tin be found in several European palaces including ones at Galleria Sabauda in Turin, Museo di Doccia in Sesto Fiorentino, Museo di Capodimonte in Naples, the Royal Palace of Madrid and the nearby Royal Palace of Aranjuez.^[57] and the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing.

More than recent noteworthy examples include the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, and the Gulf Building in Houston, Texas, which when constructed in 1929 had a 21-metre-long (69 ft) porcelain logo on its exterior.^[58] A more detailed description of the history, industry and properties of porcelain tiles is given in the commodity "Porcelain Tile: The Revolution Is Only Commencement."^[58]

Bathroom fittings [edit]

Porcelain Sleeping accommodation Pots from Vienna.

Because of its durability, inability to rust and impermeability, glazed porcelain has been in use for personal hygiene since at to the lowest degree the tertiary quarter of the 17th century. During this period, porcelain chamber pots were commonly found in higher-form European households, and the term "bourdaloue" was used as the name for the pot.^[59]

However bath tubs are non fabricated of porcelain, but of porcelain enamel on a metal base, usually of cast atomic number 26. Porcelain enamel is a marketing term used in the US, and is not porcelain simply vitreous enamel.^[60]

Dental porcelain [edit]

Dental porcelain is used for crowns, bridges and veneers.

Manufacturers [edit]

Porcelain wares, such equally those similar to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks, were oft presented equally merchandise goods during the 15th-century Chinese maritime expeditions. (British Museum)

• The Americas
  • Brazil
    • Germer Porcelanas Finas
    • pt:Porcelana Schmidt
  • United States
    • Blue Ridge
    • CoorsTek, Inc.
    • Franciscan
    • Lenox
    • Lotus Ware
    • Pickard China
• Asia
  • People's republic of china
    • Ding ware
    • Jingdezhen porcelain
  • Islamic republic of iran
    • Maghsoud Group of Factories, (1993–present)^[61]
    • Zarin Iran porcelain Industries, (1881–present)^[62]
  • Japan
    • Hirado ware
    • Kakiemon
    • Nabeshima ware
    • Narumi
    • Noritake
    • Schmid Kreglinger
  • Malaysia
    • Regal Selangor
  • Republic of korea
    • Haengnam Chinaware
    • Hankook Chinaware
  • Sri Lanka
    • Dankotuwa Porcelain
    • Noritake Lanka Porcelain
    • Regal Fernwood Porcelain
  • Taiwan
    • Franz Drove
  • Turkey
    • Yildiz Porselen (1890–1936, 1994–present)
    • Kütahya Porselen (1970–present)
    • Güral Porselen (1989–present)
    • Porland Porselen (1976–present)
    • Istanbul Porselen (1963 – early 1990s)
    • Sümerbank Porselen (1957–1994)
  • United Arab Emirates
    • RAK Porcelain
  • Vietnam
    • Minh Long I porcelain (1970–present)^[63]
    • Bát Tràng porcelain (1352–present)
• Europe
  • Austria
    • Vienna Porcelain Manufacturing plant, 1718–1864
    • Vienna Porcelain Manufactory Augarten, 1923–present
  • Republic of croatia
    • Inkerpor (1953–nowadays)
  • Czech Democracy
    • Haas & Czjzek, Horní Slavkov (1792–2011)
    • Thun 1794, Klášterec nad Ohří (1794–present)
    • Český porcelán a.s., Dubí, Eichwelder Porzellan und Ofenfabriken Bloch & Co. Böhmen (1864–present)
    • Rudolf Kämpf, Nové Sedlo (Sokolov Commune) (1907–present)
  • Denmark
    • Aluminia
    • Bing & Grøndahl
    • Denmark porcelain
    • P. Ipsens Enke
    • Kastrup Vaerk
    • Kronjyden
    • Porcelænshaven
    • Majestic Copenhagen (1775–present)
    • GreenGate
  • Finland
    • Arabia
  • France
    • Saint-Cloud porcelain (1693–1766)
    • Chantilly porcelain (1730–1800)
    • Vincennes porcelain (1740–1756)
    • Mennecy-Villeroy porcelain (1745–1765)
    • Sèvres porcelain (1756–nowadays)
    • Revol porcelain (1789–present)
    • Limoges porcelain
    • Haviland porcelain
  • Frg
    • Current porcelain manufacturers in Germany
  • Hungary
    • Hollóháza Porcelain Manufactory (1777–present)
    • Herend Porcelain Manufacture (1826–present)
    • Zsolnay Porcelain Manufacture (1853–present)
  • Italy
    • Richard-Ginori 1735 Manifattura di Doccia (1735–nowadays)^[64]
    • Capodimonte porcelain (1743–1759)
    • Naples porcelain (1771–1806)
    • Manifattura Italiana Porcellane Artistiche Fabris (1922–1972)
    • Mangani SRL, Porcellane d'Arte (Florence)
  • Lithuania
    • Jiesia^[65]
  • Netherlands
    • Haagsche Plateelbakkerij, Rozenburg
    • Loosdrechts Porselein
    • Weesp Porselein
  • Norway
    • Egersund porcelain
    • Figgjo (1941–nowadays)
    • Herrebøe porcelain
    • Porsgrund
    • Stavangerflint
  • Poland
    • Every bit Ćmielów
    • Fabryka Fajansu i Porcelany^[66]
    • Polskie Fabryki Porcelany "Ćmielów" i "Chodzież" S.A.^[67]
    • Kristoff Porcelana^[68]
    • Lubiana S.A.^[69]
  • Portugal
    • Vista Alegre
    • Sociedade Porcelanas de Alcobaça
    • Costa Verde (company), located in the district of Aveiro
  • Russia
    • Imperial Porcelain Factory, St. petersburg (1744–present)
    • Verbilki Porcelain (1766–present), Verbilki almost Taldom
    • Gzhel ceramics (1802–present), Gzhel
    • Dulevo Farfor (1832–nowadays), Likino-Dulyovo
  • Espana
    • Buen Retiro Regal Porcelain Mill (1760–1812)
    • Existent Fábrica de Sargadelos (1808–present, intermittently)
    • Porvasal
  • Switzerland
    • Suisse Langenthal
  • Sweden
    • Rörstrand
    • Gustavsberg porcelain
  • United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland
    • Aynsley China (1775–present)
    • Belleek (1884–present)
    • Bow porcelain factory (1747–1776)
    • Caughley porcelain
    • Chelsea porcelain factory (c. 1745; merged with Derby in 1770)
    • Coalport porcelain
    • Davenport
    • Goss crested china
    • Liverpool porcelain
    • Longton Hall porcelain
    • Lowestoft Porcelain Factory
    • Mintons Ltd (1793–1968; merged with Imperial Doulton)
    • Nantgarw Pottery
    • New Hall porcelain
    • Plymouth Porcelain
    • Rockingham Pottery
    • Majestic Crown Derby (1750/57–present)
    • Purple Doulton (1815–2009; acquired by Fiskars)
    • Royal Worcester (1751–2008; acquired by Portmeirion Pottery)
    • Spode (1767–2008; acquired past Portmeirion Pottery)
    • Saint James'due south Mill (or "Girl-in-a-Swing", 1750s)
    • Swansea porcelain
    • Vauxhall porcelain
    • Wedgwood, (factory 1759–present, porcelain 1812–1829, and modern. Acquired by Fiskars)

Come across as well [edit]

• Bluish and white porcelain
• List of porcelain manufacturers
• Lithophane
• Sea pottery

Notes [edit]

1. ^ "Porcelain, north. and adj". Oxford English language Dictionary . Retrieved eighteen Jun 2018.
2. ^ OED, "China"; An Introduction to Pottery. 2nd edition. Rado P. Institute of Ceramic / Pergamon Press. 1988. Usage of "china" in this sense is inconsistent, & it may be used of other types of ceramics also.
3. ^ Harmonized commodity description and coding system: explanatory notes, Book 3, 1986, Customs Co-operation Council, U.S. Community Service, U.S. Department of the Treasury
4. ^ Definition in The Combined Classification of the European Communities defines, Burton, 1906
5. ^ Valenstein, South. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics Archived September 9, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, pp. 22, 59-60, 72, Metropolitan Museum of Fine art, New York. ISBN 9780870995149
6. ^ ^{a b c} Richards, Sarah (1999). Eighteenth-century ceramic: Products for a civilised lodge . Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 23–26. ISBN978-0-7190-4465-6.
7. ^ Reed, Cleota; Skoczen; Stan (1997). Syracuse China. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. pp. 51–52. ISBN978-0-8156-0474-vii. Archived from the original on 2014-01-07.
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References [edit]

• Battie, David, ed., Sotheby'south Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, 1990, Conran Octopus. ISBN 1850292515
• Le Corbellier, Clare, Eighteenth-century Italian porcelain, 1985, Metropolitan Museum of Fine art, (fully available online every bit PDF)
• Smith, Lawrence, Harris, Victor and Clark, Timothy, Japanese Art: Masterpieces in the British Museum, 1990, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114464
• Vainker, Southward.J., Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, 1991, British Museum Press, 9780714114705
• Watson, William ed., The Great Nihon Exhibition: Art of the Edo Period 1600–1868, 1981, Royal University of Arts/Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Further reading [edit]

• Burton, William (1906). Porcelain, Its Nature, Art and Industry. London: Batsford.
• Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities – EC Commission in Grand duchy of luxembourg, 1987.
• Finlay, Robert (2010). The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in Globe History. Vol. 11 of California World History Library (Illustrated ed.). University of California Printing. ISBN978-0-520-94538-8 . Retrieved 24 Apr 2014.
• Guy, John (1986). Guy, John (ed.). Oriental merchandise ceramics in South-Eastern asia, ninth to sixteenth centuries: with a catalogue of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai wares in Australian collections (Illustrated, revised ed.). Oxford University Printing. ISBN9780195825930 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.

• Rackham, Bernard. A Book of Porcelain at Project Gutenberg
• Valenstein, Due south. (1998). A Handbook of Chinese ceramics, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 978-0-87099-514-9.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Porcelain.

• How porcelain is made
• How bisque porcelain is made
• ArtLex Fine art Lexicon – Porcelain

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelain

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